Full azimuth angle domain imaging provides an alternate way to map events in structurally complex areas. Information about continuous surfaces can be derived from specular gathers, while diffraction gathers are used to derive information about discontinuity i.e., faults and small-scale fractures.

Natural and induced fractures play a vital role in determining hydrocarbon producibility in basement exploration. An accurate understanding of fracture networks is critical for optimizing development in naturally fractured reservoirs, since the intensity and orientation of fractures significantly affect fluid flow in the reservoir rocks. Assorted techniques are available to characterize these fractures.

High-quality subsurface images are critical for uncovering geological and geophysical aspects of the subsurface. Much vintage data was acquired in areas where no new surveys are available for a variety of reasons, so that reprocessing existing data may be the only option. The reprocessing results discussed in this paper have tremendously improved image quality and increased the interpreter’s confidence by resolving depth issues, fault positioning and reservoir connectivity.

The latest advancements in seismic processing and imaging, such as geostatistical interval velocity derivation and full-azimuth imaging, have improved many geologically complex and structurally deeper sediments.

Sub-basalt imaging is difficult due to loss of seismic energy, attenuation, absorption, scattering and mode conversion.

In the presence of complex geology and lateral velocity variations, unresolved velocity anomalies in the overburden degrade deeper imaging.

In depth imaging, depth calibration using well-tie updated velocity is generally applied to poststack data. This is the most correct type of depth calibration as it positions structures in their proper places.

One of the main challenges in seismic imaging, especially of land data, is building the near surface velocity model, as it is normally characterized by very low velocity values with different types of local anomalies. Resolving the near surface velocity model using only refraction data is insufficient, as it does not provide the required lateral resolution. Using only reflection data is equally insufficient, as it does not provide the required vertical resolution.